Civil War Aeronautics
by Jason R Lee
 View Our Collection of Civil War Maps, Books and Films on CD and DVD |
Summary: This article discusses the birth of American military aeronautics by focusing on the use of observation balloons during the Civil War.
To find the beginning of American military aeronautics it is necessary
to turn back time more than four decades prior to the Wright brothers'
world-changing invention; to the Civil War. As J. Duane Squires explains,
“it was in this great conflict of the nineteenth century that so
many of the 'modern' characteristics of warfare had their origin.”1
During the Civil War the first American aeronautics corps was developed,
utilizing balloons to gain important information about the opposition.
The use of these balloons during the Civil War directly changed the course
of world history. It helped foster what Joseph Corn calls the “winged
gospel”; America's love affair with aviation.2 Civil War aeronautics
also changed the way in which all future wars would be fought, creating
perhaps the most strategic element of modern warfare.
The first balloon was invented by the Montgolfier brothers in France.
They observed the properties of heated air and designed a lightweight
bag to catch the hot air. Their efforts led to the first ballooning demonstration
in September of 1783 in front of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette at Versailles.3
The transition of the balloon as a practical military tool happened very
rapidly. By 1789, the French army had already integrated the balloon into
their military planning. The French military balloonists were known as
“Aerostiers”, and were led by Captain J. M. Coutelle. The Aerostiers'
first use was during the battle of Fleurus in 1794.4 The first military
balloon was a success and provided critical information about troop movements,
contributing to the French victory.
As in Europe, enthusiasm and interest in ballooning would become extremely
high in the United States. The first ascension in the United States occurred
on January 9, 1793 and was witnessed by America's most important and influential
people, including George Washington.5 Unlike France, however, ballooning
in the United States did not make such a quick transition into a military
tool. Instead, it was utilized for recreation and balloon ascents which
became major spectator events. Huge crowds would gather to watch the amazing
flying balloons. By the eve of the Civil War, approximately 3,000 ascents
had been made in the United States, and about 8,000 Americans had risen
into the air.6
In the years leading up to the war, there were numerous aeronauts who
were working to solve the quest for safe air travel. By this time, hydrogen
gas was being used for lifting the balloons instead of hot air. This was
because hot air balloons required the aeronaut to keep a fire burning.
Straw was often used to fuel the fire because of its light weight. Predictably,
burning pieces of straw would often float upwards, catching the balloon
on fire. Hydrogen, on the other hand, would keep a balloon airborne for
longer and was safer than the hot air balloons of the day.7 The ultimate
goal to which these balloonists were striving was to design and build
a balloon capable of navigating across the Atlantic Ocean. Scientists,
namely Professor Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, had observed that the upper clouds
always seemed to move east, no matter what direction the wind was blowing
along the surface of the earth.8 The goal of a transatlantic flight was
viewed by many as a very real possibility, as evident in the following
statement written by Professor Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
regarding T. S. C. Lowe's planned attempt at an Atlantic crossing:
“It has been fully established by continuous observations collected
at this Institution for ten years, from every part of the United States,
that, as a general rule, all the meteorological phenomena advance from
west to east, and that the higher clouds always move eastwardly. We are,
therefore, from abundant observation, as well as from theoretical considerations,
enabled to state with confidence that on a given day, whatever may be
the direction of the wind at the surface of the earth, a balloon elevated
sufficiently high would be carried easterly by the prevailing current
in the upper or rather middle region of the atmosphere.”
“I do not hesitate, therefore, to say that, provided a balloon can
be constructed of sufficient size and of sufficient impermeability to
gas, in order that it may maintain a high elevation for a sufficient length
of time, it would be wafted across the Atlantic. I would not, however,
advise that the first experiment of this character be made across the
ocean, but that the feasibility of the project should be thoroughly tested
and experience accumulated by voyages over the interior of our continent.”9
When war broke out many of the leading aeronauts in America saw the opportunity
to utilize the balloons for military observation, and thus abandoned the
quest for a transatlantic balloon crossing. The first balloonist that
tried to bring the balloon to the battlefield was James Allen. He accompanied
Colonel Burnside's 1st Rhode Island regiment to Washington, but ran into
some bad luck as both of his balloons were damaged beyond repair during
accidents just prior to the First Manassas.10
Around the same time, John Wise of Pennsylvania was also vying for support
from the government for adapting his balloon to military use. He was contracted
by the War department to build a balloon specially designed for the military.
Wise, however, lost the faith of the government when he failed to deliver
his completed balloon prior to the First Manassas.11
Professor T. S. C. Lowe was the main aeronaut who was competing with Wise
for the government contract in Washington at that time. Prior to the war,
Lowe had dedicated nearly ten years to ballooning and had been on the
verge of attempting a transatlantic flight. On April 20, 1861, only 8
days after the Confederates opened fire on Ft. Sumter, Lowe made a historic
flight from Cincinnati to the coast of South Carolina. The trip covered
about 900 miles in only 9 hours and proved without doubt that his theory
of the easterly jet stream was correct.12
The choice of timing for a such a test flight was not the best. Upon landing,
he found himself accused of being a Union spy. After much difficulty,
however, Lowe was able to navigate through the South and back across the
Ohio river to Cincinnati.13
After his his return to Union territory, Lowe departed immediately for
Washington. He too saw the advantages that balloons could bring to the
battlefield. With the help of Professor Henry's influence, Lowe gained
the attention of President Abraham Lincoln. Lowe conducted experiments
on the Smithsonian grounds, as well as in front of the White House, for
the purpose of demonstrating the advantages of his ballooning equipment
and techniques.14 When he made his ascent in front of the White House,
he utilized the technology of the telegraph by running a telegraph line
from his balloon basket down to the ground. The first ever Air to Ground
communication in history occurred as Lowe sent the following message to
President Lincoln:
“Dear Sir”
“From this point of observation we command an extent of our country
nearly fifty miles in diameter. I have the pleasure of sending you this
first telegram ever dispatched from an aerial station, and acknowledging
indebtedness to your encouragement for the opportunity of demonstrating
the availability of the science of aeronautics in the service of the country.”
“I am, Your Excellency's obedient servant,
T.S.C. Lowe”15
A chief rival of Lowe was John La Mountain, of New York. Like Lowe, Mountain
experimented with the eastern air currents in the upper atmosphere. La
Mountain's idea was to utilize this air flow to make free flights over
the enemy position, instead of being tethered and stationary.16 John La
Mountain soon gained the favor of General Benjamin F. Butler, who was
stationed at Fort Monroe, Virginia. Under General Butler's command, La
Mountain made six free-flight reconnaissance ascensions from October to
December, 1861.17 Despite his success, La Mountain's bitter rivalry with
Professor Lowe made it necessary for the War Department to choose between
the two aeronauts. Unfortunately for La Mountain, Lowe had gained the
favor of President Lincoln and La Mountain was dismissed from service.
With his rival aeronauts out of the picture, Lowe was contracted on August
2, 1861 to construct the first military balloon and thus establish an
Aeronautic Corps within the Union Army. The balloon was completed on August
28, 1861.18 To make the Aeronautic Corps battlefield capable, Lowe had
to overcome several obstacles. The main obstacle, as stated by Lowe, was
to develop an efficient and portable system of generating the hydrogen
for the balloons.19 After about a month of observations within Washington
Lowe was commanded by Major-General McClellan, the Secretary of War, to
construct four additional balloons, along with the hydrogen generators
needed to fill the balloons in the field. By October 12, 1861, the four
balloons and the gas generators were completed.20 The five balloons now
in the Army's possession were called “Eagle” (the original balloon
built), “Constitution”, “Washington”, “Intrepid”,
and “Union”.21 Each balloon was capable of ascending over one
thousand feet.22 The Aeronautic Corps was under the command of the Topographical
Engineers, who assigned several squads of men to assist with the ascensions.23
From that time on, the Aeronautic Corps accompanied the Army of the Potomac
in virtually all its campaigns. The majority of the Aeronautic Corps'
service came in correlation with the Peninsular Campaign of 1862. During
the Peninsular Campaign, several Union officers made ascents in balloons,
including McClellan himself.24 The observations and artillery direction
of the Aeronautic Corps were indispensable to the Union efforts during
the Peninsular campaign. They made notable observations at the battles
of Mechanicsville, Seven Pines, and Fair Oaks.25 The Confederates also
made feeble attempts at using balloon technology, but they lacked the
resources to construct and operate an effective balloon corps.26
One of the most successful uses of the Union's Aeronautic Corps was at
the battle of Fair Oaks. At this battle Lowe ascended over the battlefield
using the balloon “Intrepid”, observing Confederate troop movements.
At one point, the “Intrepid” ran out of hydrogen gas. Lowe ingeniously
fashioned a connector-valve out of a kettle and used it to transfer hydrogen
from the “Constitution” to the “Intrepid”.27 Lowe's
ingenuity and heroism at the battle of Fair Oaks provided the officers
with valuable information and saved General Heintzelman's army which was
isolated and vulnerable.
After spending so much time in the boggy terrain during the Peninsular
Campaign, Lowe contracted malaria.28 He was forced out of work for over
a month at the end of the Peninsular Campaign. The poor outcomes of the
Union Army, caused the Army of the Potomac to be called back to Washington
to regroup. By the time Lowe was well again, much of his equipment had
disappeared and the Aeronautic Corps was in shambles.
The Aeronautic Corps managed to find its way back to service, however,
at the Battle of Fredericksburg. The balloons collected vital information
about Confederate strength and positions. This information provided by
the balloons contributed to Major General Joseph Hooker's decision to
protest the plan of Burnside that called for an attack on the area behind
the city. Burnside ignored Hooker's protests, however, and Hooker's division
suffered huge losses.29
The Aeronautic corps was later reassigned to the Engineers Corps, but
never truly found its nitch within the Army of the Potomac Comstock, Lowe's
new commander cut his pay to only 6$ per day.30 The original offer by
the government before hiring Lowe was $30 per day.31 The diminishing pay,
along with lack of acceptance by many officers within the Army caused
Lowe to submit his resignation in May 1863, after serving at the battle
of Chancellorsville.32 By August of that same year, the Aeronautic Corps
ceased to exist.33
The effects that balloons had reached beyond the observations and artillery
direction. They offered a sense of comfort and security for both military
personnel and civilians.34 The balloons hovering above battlefields also
had an effect on the opposing army. Confederate troops saw the balloons
and knew that the Union Army had the strategic advantage of being able
to see their every move.35 Therefore, the balloons greatly effected the
moral of both sides.
The early balloons in America, especially during the Civil War, have had
lasting effects on intelligence, military aviation, and the culture of
America. Military intelligence would never be the same. The improvements
in accuracy of intelligence reports brought by the balloons in the Civil
War totally changed the meaning of intelligence and set a precedence for
the utilization of technology in correlation with intelligence operations.
In previous wars, scouts would have to get dangerously close to the enemy
to gather good intelligence; and after they obtained the information,
it would take them sometimes hours to return to camp and report. The balloons
provided the first real-time battlefield intelligence, showing the importance
of technology in warfare.36
The effects have also been felt in the area of military aviation. Today,
one of the primary functions of military aircraft is observation and reconnaissance.
The current United States military is providing the most substantial proof
for T. S. C. Lowe's beliefs that aerial reconnaissance could be the most
useful tool on the battlefield and could offer a distinct advantage over
the enemy. The latest technology in the U. S. arsenal, is the Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle or UAV. The Department of Defence is constantly developing
new UAV technology that will support the “Joint Vision 2010”
quest. The “Joint Vision 2010” quest is a mission to achieve
information superiority over any enemy.37 The main mission of these reconnaissance
aircraft has not changed at all from the original vision of Lowe. These
aircraft exist to provide the military commanders on the ground with “broad
area surveillance” of the battlefield.38
The Civil War's use of balloons also contributed to what historian Joseph
Corn dubbed “The Winged Gospel”.39 In Corn's book, The Winged
Gospel: America's Romance with Aviation, Corn takes a look at aviation
from a new perspective. Where most authors have written about the technological
history and development of aviation, Corn examines the social and cultural
impact that aviation had on the American public. As he explains, aircraft
were more than just machines to Americans during the first half-century
of flight. They represented hope, and were expected to bring about many
beneficial changes that would revolutionize every aspect of life, from
military to business and recreational aspects of American society.40 Corn
sees the beginning of the winged gospel as the invention of the airplane
in 1903. As Roger Bilstein points out, however, American aviation began
over a century prior to the Write brothers' invention.41 The first American
aeronauts flew in balloons, and from then on, the American fascination
with flight continued to grow.
The extent to which balloons influenced the events of the U. S. Civil
War is debatable. Perhaps the Union Army failed to realize exactly how
much Lowe's balloon corps was contributing to the war effort. The legacy
of these nineteenth century balloons, however, cannot be understated.
The effects that balloons had on military intelligence, military aviation,
and the general course of American history was substantial. Aviation continues
to influence virtually every aspect of life today, and there are no signs
that this level of significance will drop in the future.
----------------------------------
Primary Resources:
“Balloons and Pigeons: Military Aerostation in Various Countries”.
The New York Times. New York: 1 August, 1875
“Balloons in Warfare”. The New York Times. New York: 3 September,
1870
Lowe, T. S. C. “The Balloons with the Army of the Potomac.”
(Article) in The Photographic History of the Civil War, Volume IV, by
Francis Trevelyan Miller, published by Thomas Yoseloff, 1911, (revised
1957).
Official Congressional Records. “First Session of the Thirty-Eighth
Congress”. Journal of the Senate of the United States of America,
Serial #1175. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1863
Official Congressional Records. “Report”. 37th Congress, 3rd
Session, Rep. Com. No. 71. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1863
Official Congressional Records. “Report of the Joint Committee on
the Conduct of the War, Part 1”. Reports of Committees: 37th Congress,
3rd Session, Rep. Com. No. 108. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1863
Official Congressional Records. “Report of the Joint Committee on
the Conduct of the War, Part 2”. Reports of Committees: 37th Congress,
3rd Session, Rep. Com. No. 108. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1863
Official Congressional Records. “Report of the Joint Committee on
the Conduct of the War, Part 3”. Reports of Committees: 37th Congress,
3rd Session, Rep. Com. No. 108. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1863
Official Union Records. “Correspondence, Orders, Reports, and Returns
of the Union Authorities from January 1 to December 31, 1863. # 11”.
O.R. Series III, Volume III [S# 124].
Official Union Records. “Correspondence, Orders, Reports, and Returns
of the Union Authorities from January 1 to December 31, 1863. # 12”.
O.R. Series III, Volume III [S# 124].
“Our Country”. The Advance. Ogdensburgh, New York: 2 August,
1861
“Picket Stories”. The Journal and Republican. Lowville Lewis
County, New York: 9 July, 1862
Porter, Fitz John. “Fitz John Porter Views The Confederates From
A Balloon”. (Article) in The Blue and The Gray, by Henry Steele Commager,
published by Mentor, 1973.
“The Army Balloon Corps”. The Washington Star. Washington: 8
December, 1861
“The Army of the Potomac: Relation of the Army and the Government,
Condition and Prospects of the Army”. The New York Times. New York:
16 January, 1863
“Use of Balloons in War”. The New York Times. New York: 12 July,
1863
Secondary Resources :
Bilstein, Roger E. Flight in America: From the Wrights to the Astronauts.
Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 2001
Central Intelligence Agency Website. “Intelligence in the Civil War.”
Corn, Joseph J. The Winged Gospel: America's Romance with Aviation. Baltimore:
The John Hopkins University Press, 2002
Crouch, Tom D. A Dream of Wings: Americans and the Airplane, 1875 to 1905.
New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1989
Haydon, Frederick Stansbury. Aeronautics in the Union and Confederate
Armies, with a Survey of Military Aeronautics prior to 1861. Manchester,
NH: Ayer Company Publishers, June 1979
Jones, Christopher A. “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): An Assessment
of Historical Operations and Future Possibilities”.
Squires, James Duane. “Aeronautics in the Civil War”. The American
Historical Review, Vol. 42, No. 4. pp. 652-669. Washington: American Historical
Association, July 1937
